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Welding, brazing, and soldering are the three most widely used metal-joining techniques. Although this section does not provide a rigorous review of welding and brazing, a cursory comparison of these metal-joining processes is useful in setting the stage for an in-depth discussion of circuit board soldering. Welding involves heating of two similar or dissimilar abutting metals to the point that they fuse into one another. Unlike brazing and soldering, there is considerable depth to the metallurgical changes at their interface that take place in the metals being joined during welding. Sometimes a filler metal is applied to lower the melting temperature of the weldment metals or for desired mechanical properties of the finished bond. As in brazing and soldering, sometimes chemical treatment is required to help dissolve surface oxides and also a cover gas may be applied to retard oxidation during the high temperatures of the bonding process. There are three distinguishing characteristics that differentiate welding from brazing and soldering: the temperature of the bonding process, the depth of material dissolution from the bonding surfaces, and the reliance on surficial wetting and spreading of the filler material.

Data for simple thrust bearing with single jet a b h*

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Brazing and soldering involve the use of a filler metal (brazing compound or solder), which has a significantly lower melting point than the basis metals associated with the two bonding surfaces. The filler material must be able to alloy with the surfaces to be joined. As the filler is heated to liquidus, there is near-surface metallurgical dissolution and mixing (alloy formation) with the contacted bonding surfaces. Continued heating above the liquidus temperature of the filler metal results in its further spreading and alloying via molten metal surface tension effects.As the bonding surfaces are cooled, the filler metal returns to solidus and a bonded assembly results. There are only subtle differences between soldering and brazing, the primary distinction being the temperature required for joint formation. Brazing is generally accomplished at a relatively high temperature (>450 C) as compared to soldering. (There is no consensus in the literature, but values between 400 C and 500 C are commonly sited.) Brazing temperatures would be detrimental to most electronic components and PWBs. Since circuit board assembly is done almost exclusively by means of soldering at temperatures generally below 260 C, this chapter is devoted to that traditional joining method.

* Dbar)

Solder is the cement that joins lead to pad, imparts the mechanical robustness required for a reliable assembly, and also possesses the electrical conduction needed for circuitry Generally composed of an alloy of metals, it is chosen to melt at a temperature compatible with other materials associated with the soldered assembly Once molten, the solder must wet the component lead and bond pad Upon solidification, the resultant solder joint must provide bond strength to survive differences in thermal expansion rates of the associated component assembly There must be compatibility of the solder alloy and related materials to requirements for assembly and service at elevated operating temperatures as well as resistance to mechanical shock and vibration Since the start of electronics, Sn-Pb has been the dominant solder alloy choice Its eutectic alloy possesses a relatively modest liquidus temperature (183 C) and a working range typically about 205 to 230 C.

This overage in temperature by about 20 to 50 C is applied to ensure that all parts have achieved a temperature commensurate with good solder wetting It also may be necessary to reach such temperatures on thermally massive boards where the lightest parts may heat quickly while the most thermally aggressive parts may just barely achieve a temperature adequate for good solder wetting Everything in the electronics industry has been tailored to working in that temperature regime ICs and passive components, laminates, and process equipment associated with soldering have been qualified for use at those temperatures Now, due to the EU s RoHS directive and similar legislation elsewhere in the world, Sn-Pb is being phased out from mainstream electronics manufacturing Only a small fraction of printed circuit assemblies (PCAs) will remain as Pb d solder assemblies as permitted by RoHS exclusions and exempted military applications.

As time progresses, it will become increasingly difficult to source Pb-bearing parts for use with RoHS Pb-exempt circuitry There are no drop-in replacement solders for Sn-Pb Although there are many candidates, the most widely considered alloys require higher process temperatures and necessitate changes to components, circuit board laminates, and even process equipment..

d* For annular thrust bearing of same b/a and n jets d * = 2 (Fig 47 (b)) n 05 10 15 Design clearance h * (in 10 3)

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